Vyšší jednotky a velitelství US Army

pracovní téma

Civil war


During the american civil war, the Americans mobilize so many troops, that had several armies. The armies of the Union were in 1864 subjected to under the unified command of general Grant. It was the first american experience with the management of the several armies and corps one command element. However, it wasn't so developed and institutionalized form, as we know from the later period. Technological and social progress went but fast forward and covered even the military field.

First world war


the Emergence of groups of armies
In the first world war the european powers were able to mobilize armies of unprecedented size. The number of men has not moved in hundreds of thousands but in the millions. Management of several armies, separate corps and other various formations on a similar level has already been effectively possible from one central location, which was still usually the war ministry, general staff or similar institution. Modern management of the armies required the implementation of many decisions of the command and administrative nature and, moreover, in a relatively short period of time. Practice, when general Joffre command the eight armies, or Moltke seven was untenable. During the first world war to introduce this intermediate step between the armies and the central headquarters of the Russians (front), the Germans and the French (group of armies). In addition to the appointment of commanders for certain area like Hindenburg, who acted in the capacity of commander of all German troops on the eastern front.

the American expeditionary forces
The americans have not implemented a similar degree of command, since their expeditionary forces in Europe amounted to just three field army and was therefore in principle it is possible to drive one superior element, which was the Headquarters of the american expeditionary force (American Expeditionary Force, abbreviated as AEF) led by general Pershing. He came to Europe with the function of the commanding general, AEF, to which he appointed him directly to the minister of war (Secretary of War). Inherent part of this appointment was the establishment of the general headquarters (General Headquarters, abbreviated as GHQ), which should be a tool of waging war. According to some interpretations of the method of his appointment and the scope of its powers Pershinga built on a par with the chief of the general staff. Important also was that Pershing was able to reflect the efforts of the British and the French about the deployment of american troops piecemeal in the context of british and French units. Held to the principle that american troops will be fighting under an american commander. From this practice, although in the end several times to compromise, but rather about the deployment of smaller u.s. units at the battalion level. Part of the Headquarters of the AEF was the Headquarters of the communication line (Line of Communication HQ), which was later renamed to Headquarters, the supply service (Service of Suply, abbreviated SOS). His task was to ensure the supply units and evacuation of the wounded. For this purpose, should the various components in the communication area (Communications Zone), or in the rear of the AEF in a broader concept. In the summer of 1918 the Department of war (Department of War) suggested that these activities were from the Headquarters of the AEF divided. Pershing's but I strongly refused and insisted that it's his prerogativ of the title of commander of the theater of war (theater commander), to get in this theater of war drove the supply activity. In addition, swift was named chief of staff of the AEF to command the SOS.

Interwar period


the Experience of the first world war
General Pershing in 1921 became chief of the general staff and carried out several reforms. One of them increased the role of the general staff in the operational planning. In accordance with the conclusions of the Harbordovy council has been the establishment of a Council of war planning (War Plans Board). It laid the foundations for pozdějčí the main role of the general staff in the operational management during the second world war. From doktrinálního point of view, the Americans copied the French. The first manual for the management of higher units, which was published in 1924, was a translation of the French manual. I dealt with the command, organization and tactical deployment of the higher units, however the top was a field army. In 1930, issued by the Ministry of war, a Manual for commanders of higher units (provisional) (Manual for Commanders of Larger Units (Provisional)). This guide brought the doctrine for modern warfare, based on recent us experience with the leadership of the larger units in the field. This, after the model of the AEF, assumed the existence of a General headquarters (General Headquarters, abbreviated as GHQ), which should drive the units deployed in the field. The manual further define additional levels of command - army group, field army, corps and division. Army group (army group) was defined as the largest tactical unit.

the Emergence of a military headquarters
The problem of the interwar army was, inter alia, the lack of resources. The army, therefore, was rather a kind of ground, which was full of paper in existing units that but were not active. In the early thirties it was becoming clearer that the risk of further military conflict is still higher. The chief of the general staff at the time was a general MacArthur. It has managed to create a framework for the mobilisation and expansion of the forces in case of war. In 1932 was within the continental US established four headquarters of the field armies. Their existence was to facilitate the progress of any mobilization and training. Headquarters and the staffs of these armies should have experienced cadres. MacArthur proposed also the establishment of the headquarters of the army groups, though in greatly reduced form only a kind of the base, which would add up to if needed. But this proposal was not implemented. In the summer of 1939 was an american army scattered for more than a hundred bases, while mostly it was about the unit to the size of a battalion. Field army existed only as points of management training and structure at the level of the councils were primarily administrative in nature.

Reorganization of march 1942
In addition, it was increasingly apparent that if the outbreak of the war, this konflagrace take place on a more válčištích at the same time. The manual from the 1930 predicted the existence of the general headquarters, which would be guided by the expeditionary force in many ways (operational, logistical, and other). The then chief of the general staff of the Marshall but he was, along with a variety of other factors, convinced that this doctrinal concept does not sufficiently reflect the needs of the modern management of war activities. It was necessary to deal with the estimated need of waging war on several geographically distant válčištích, with the complexity of modern training, with the necessity of rapid operational management and the rapid development of the air force. It was, therefore, developed organizational studies, the conclusions of which were subsequently implemented. To 9. march 1942 was the General headquarters-seamless Headquarters army ground forces, whose task was the training of field units. Operational control passed to the general staff, who thus became the real center for the management of war activities on a global scale. The reorganization of march 1942 meant that the field manual for commanders of higher units of 1930 was already unusable. In June of 1942, therefore, the new version has been released (Field Service Regulations, Larger Units (FM 100-15)), which provided the framework for the activities of the higher units during the second world war.

North Africa and the Mediterranean


U.s.-british cooperation before the entry of the USA into a war
FM 100-15 not only described the functions and activities of the groups of armies and armies, but also give information about the joint operations of the ground forces, navy and air force and further emphasis on the extensive theater of war (theaters of operations). The manual did not use the term theater army, and the mention of combined operations with allied forces. War the reality of it however did not take into account. American and british military officials so they had to find a way to create a higher unit and the headquarters, which will be able to successfully plan, organize and execute a large-scale military operations. In October 1940 he was on the british islands dispatched major general James Chaney, who served in the army air corps and was tasked to observe the conduct of the air war between the luftwaffe and the RAF. 29. January 1941 met the american representatives of the general staffs of the army and navy met with their british counterparts. The purpose of the series of meetings referred to as the ABC-1 was to establish the principles and methods of joint action against the Axis forces in the event of american entry into the war. It was agreed that both parties will co-ordinate the planning and set up with their counterparts of the military mission. In may 1941 arrived in London the american mission, which has been labelled as the Special observation group (Special Observer Group, abbreviated SPOBS). At its head stood the general Chaney and the whole consisted of eighteen officers and eleven members of the team. The task group was to establish contact with british agents and get to know their weaponry and methods of combat. Should also help with the coordination of the allocation of the material, which was in the Kingdom comes under the loan Agreement and the leases. The group also participated in the planning of the american occupation of the Island, on which the american 1. makeshift brigade of the marine corps in July of 1941 was replaced by british troops. Group had to further prepare the conditions for the possible deployment of american troops in the british isles in the event that the U.S. entered the war.

Kombinovaní chiefs of staff
The japanese attack on Pearl Harbor and subsequent US entry into the war granted the us-british cooperation new momentum. In December he left the british prime minister Churchill in Washington, where us president Roosevelt at a conference Arcadia agreed on a common global strategy and common conduct of the war. This unity of the allied military leadership was implemented through the the Combined chiefs of staff (Combined Chiefs of Staff, abbreviated as CCS). On the top level of the supreme allied military headquarters were in the american side, the members of the United committee of the joint chiefs of staff (Joint Chiefs of Staff) and for the british side of the members of the Committee of the joint chiefs of staff (Chiefs of Staff Committee), i.e. the chiefs of the american and british army, navy and air force. You were but present only the most important meetings. Most of the practical activities took place in Washington, where the british party sent Associated staff mission (Joint Staff Mission), which had a counterpart in the american United army and navy board (Army-Navy Joint Board). The task of the CCS was to coordinate military operations and allocate resources. The british side wanted that the allocation of resources remained under civilian control, which should ensure for this purpose, established authority called the Council for the allocation of ammunition (Munitions Assignments Board, abbreviated MAB). Roosevelt although Churchill convinced, but Marshall has asserted that the MAB was subject to a CCS. Food, raw materials and ship construction but remained in civilian hands.

American troops in Great Britain
8. January 1942 was a Special observation group přetransformována at the force Headquarters, United states Army in the British isles (Headquarters, United States Army Forces in the British Isles, abbreviated as USAFBI). The commander remained general Chaney. 24. January was established the Headquarters of the forces of the United states Army in Northern Ireland (United States Army Northern Ireland Force, abbreviated USANIF). Two days later, in Belfast, landed four thousand american soldiers. In the following months the american presence in the Uk continues to grow. At the same time has led the debate about how rganizovat command of these forces. Chaney and his colleagues preferred regional headquarters, while Marshall and its surrounding area planted rather on the functional headquarters. General Marshall sent a 14. may general Chaney directive that velitelskí the structure of us forces in the United kingdom should consist of a headquarters for the air component, land component and for the service. Virtually Washington assumed that the USAFBI will be the command post, which will be very autonomously within headquarters air force. Administrative and supply functions should go to the headquarters of the service. With the air force was not a problem, but in the case of services, there was a great friction. Marshall's directive gave broad powers to the headquarters of the service. It was in London established 24. may and his commander became major general John C. H. Lee. He was going to take over all clerical and supply functions of USAFBI. Go under it should be up to exceptions all the components of the field supply and services. Chaney had the feeling that it too interferes with his powers, but he wasn't their position due to Marshall's directive sure. USAFBi therefore turned to Washington with a request to clarify the situation, respectively the roles and responsibilities of USAFBI. Marshall's situation in London was concerned with, and therefore sent there by general Eisenhower to the site to assess the situation and returned home with recommendations on resolving the situation.

the Emergence of the European theater of war
Eisenhower concluded that Chaney should be together with his staff replaced by someone else. At the same time suggest the emergence of a headquarters for the european theater of war, which would the person of the commander in chief theater of war (theater commander) exercised absolute unity of command. 8. June Marshall introduced the proposal for a Directive of the commanding general, general Headquarters for the european theater of war, which assumed the unified command of all american forces in Europe. Marshall her same day approved, which formed the Headquarters of the Army of the United states for the european theater of war (European Theater of Operations, United States Army, abbreviated ETOUSA), which was followed by the USAFBI. At the head of ETOUSA stayed Chaney, but 11. June Marshall told Eisenhower that they should prepare to move to London, where he had Chaney to replace. Eisenhower to London arrived 24. June. The directive assigned the commanding general of the ETO tactical, strategic, territorial, and administrative duties of the commander in chief theater of war (theater commander). Eisenhower should have to manage the planning and operational deployment of both naval forces. Had a problem with it nor the chief of naval operations (equivalent to the chief of the general staff), admiral King, which Eisenhower promised that the commanders of the navy in Europe will respect. In the opposite case ought to Eisenhower turn right on to him. Eisenhower reached a compromise on the status of Lee's headquarters SOS. The authority of the commander of the SOS as a choral chief was bounded so as not to interfere in areas where no such power had a different commander. A portion of subordinates part of the SOS has been moved under the ETO. The remaining had the appointment to carry out the commander of the ETO. Lee, conversely, was added responsibility for the administrative and supply planning of operations ETO. Lee at the same time he received permission to direct negotiations with the british side and the war Ministry regarding the supply issues, without having to go the way of ETO. Eisenhower regarded this as a temporary solution, but because of other more pressing problems endured this form of the longer period of time. American power ETO should cooperate with the British in the fight against the Axis, but always as a separate component.

allied forces - united, and the combined headquarters
When he took over the Eisenhower command of ETOUSA, was the main task of the construction and assembly of troops in Britain for the planned airdrop in France. At the end of July but it was decided that it would be carried out the invasion of North Africa. 26. July Marshall informed Eisenhower that he will be commander of the allied expeditionary force. Eisenhower immediately began with the construction of the relevant staff, so when he was 14. August is officially appointed, had already the crew for the most part assembled. allied forces (Allied Force Headquarters, abbreviated AFHQ) issued its first order 12. September, it is almost a month after its establishment. AFHQ was a total new concept. Eisenhower by that time had under ETOUSA to cope with the necessity to create a functional joint (joint) command, which controlled all american forces in Europe. Now moved on to the next imaginary level, as he had to put together the work combined (acombined) headquarters, which integrated u.s. and british troops in a single combat formation. Drove in three basic principles, which were: unity of command, balance between american and british officials in the various components of staff and appointment to the function always the best candidates regardless of their nationality. Supported the the common the spirit and the suppressed frictions between the different weapons as well as ethnic differences. Several american officers were sent back to US due to the fact that you forgive the inappropriate remarks to a british address. The british, on the contrary at first did not want to give Eisenhower the full powers of, the commander of the british 1. of the army Kenneth Anderson had, according to their views have the right to appeal directly to the british Ministry of war ii, if Eisenhower's order threatened the british troops. With such a retrenchment of its powers, Eisenhower was not going to accept it and achieved that Anderson may appeal to the ministry of war, but not when that compromise the ongoing operation and had to notify in advance the Eisenhower and inform him of the reasons for its step. Staff functions have been taken up so that the deputy head of the office holders of each component was always an officer of another nationality in the same or similar rank. Members of the individual part of the staff then were according to the nationality represented roughly half and half. For administrative and supply components for practical reasons, it wasn't this way, on the contrary, there were purely british, and purely american formation. You then straddle the Main administrative office (Chief Administrative Office, abbreviated as CAO), the head of which stood the british general Humfrey Gale. He had to coordinate all operational logistics matters of the american and british forces, to coordinate the activities of the administrative staffs of the army, air force and navy of both states and to convene a conference, at which they should exchange information and accelerate coordination. Eisenhower's deputy was appointed general Mark Clark. The reason why it eventually did not become a Brit has been a concern that it might in the case, that would have to for some reason take command, to complicate the negotiations with the French. Also the chief of staff was American. The organization's headquarters and staff treatments also were based on the american model.

Landing in Africa
Operation TORCH consisted in the landing of the three task clusters (Task Force). The western task force ashore in Casablanca, the Central task force at Oran and the Eastern task force in Algiers. The western structure was formed by the american army, air and naval forces and means, which have been transported straight from the USA. The middle formation was also american, but she sailed under the british help from bases in the United kingdom. The eastern group was mainly british, but offensive ground forces for the initial phase of the operation were american, which in turn was for the French. Eisenhower directly commanded the commanders of the task force. The maritime forces of the two states, respectively their commanders, commanded indirectly through the commander of the expeditionary naval forces, which was a british admiral Cunningham. In the air force, commanded directly by the competent commanders of the air forces of both countries. Cunningham was Eisenhower's subordinate to the issue of maritime security operations and naval support of the landings. For other operations in the western Mediterranean and the north Atlantic was subordinated directly to the british admiralty. The american naval forces, which připlouvaly from the united states were subordinated to the commander of the u.s. Atlantic flot until exceeded the threshold of 40° west longitude. After the end of the operation is returned back to his subordination. AFHQ has carried out the overall management of the planning and logistics as well as operational control. Officers for planning were or disposed of to a of the ETOUSA and SOS, however, was the perceived lack of coordination between AFHQ and the two referred to hqs. The result was that the SOS was responsible for the implementation of the supply program, which is planned by someone else. Later it was recognised that planning and management of supply must be coordinated with tactical planning and management. The supply of various task force initially took place from the places, from which have proceeded. The middle group was after the time the supply is routed from the Uk to the USA. The british ran the port in Algeria, the Americans in Oran and Casablanca. American ports should be serviced by units of the SOS. In Oran with 11. November landed the first part of the .... (Mediterranean Base Section, abbreviated MBS), which is fully established 6. December and since then to ensure the supply of material. In Casablanca it was more complicated, as the commander of the Western task force put off the move units of SOS, which in the meantime had. ... (Atlantic Base Section, , abbreviated as ABS) began establishing up to 24. December. Supply to then provide the units of clusters, which on this but not enough and there were always problems. You worked out up to the establishment of the ABS. The lesson was that you need to have the appropriate units to ensure supply included already into the invasion force. At the end of December were ABS and MBS excluded from the scope of the commanders of the groups and subordinate to the right AFHQ. Algerian port of I was also. In addition, in Algiers from 25. November was just the headquarters of AFHQ.

the Emergence of the north african theater of war
The landing in North Africa was done as an operation under ETOUSA. For this reasons they were 18. August hraniec ETOUSA expanded to include Portugal, Spain, Italy, and Northwest Africa. However from the outset it was clear that it's just a temporary solution. General Eisenhower, who performed at the same time the function of the commanding general of the american army on the european battlefield (ETOUSA) and the main commander of the Allied expeditionary force in North Africa (AFHQ), proposed that, when it comes to the stabilization forces in North Africa, this region was carved out from ETOUSA as a separate theater of war. A suitable date was estimated for a period of approximately two months from landing. A change finally occurred in February 1943. The above territory was 3. February once again has been removed from the ETO and become a basis for the scope of the new theater of war, which was named as the north African theater of war (North African Theater of Operations). 4. February was established the Headquarters of the Army of the United states for the north african theater of war (North African Theater of Operations, United States Army, abbreviated NATOUSA), led by general Eisenhower, who on the same day he left ETOUSA, where it was replaced by another commander. The task of the NATOUSA was to cater in the field of the affairs of the american forces, which were allied character. As well as Eisenhower worked and a number of other officers, both within the NATOUSA, so in the context of AFHQ. Part of the staff was gradually moved from the AFQH to NATOUSA.

an Organization supply the north african battlefield
General Eisenhower was in his dual role of time-very busy and had no time to deal with detailed problems. For this reason was established the post of deputy commander of the theater of war (deputy theater commander, abbreviated as DTC), which became the general Hughes. Filling his work was similar to that which he held CAO in the context of AFHQ. No wonder, then, that the generals Hughes and Gale together often work together and coordinate their activities. A problem spočívalv that the u.s. legislation such a function was unknown, which znejisťovalo Hughes ' position. He therefore sought, at the same time, appointed commanding general of the communications zone (Communication Zone, abbreviated COMZ), which was a feature that already should have in the regulations a foothold. The appointment of Hughes to this function, which occurred 9. February, meant the creation of another separate command, it just meant that the functions of the DTC in line with military regulations. 15. February was in Oran established SOS, NATOUSA, led by general Larkin, who took over the ABS, MBS and Constantine the newly established ... (Eastern Base Section, abbreviated as EBS). In matters of supply, subject to the SOS under the DTC. The commanders of the ABS, MBS and EBS talked about running their facilities directly with the DTC. The Existence of the SOS, NATOUSA had to lighten the quartermaster on the staff of AFHQ. However, problems in communication and coordination between AFHQ and NATOUSA with even so appeared. To solve the is should the appointment of one colonel of the SOS as a liaison point in the AFHQ.

Changes in the operational headquarters
The changes occurred not only in the organizational vtstvě, but also in operational headquarters. 1. January 1943 was the Eastern task force was renamed the british 1. army. 4. January was in the moroccan Ojudě activated us 5. army. The changes require the involvement of French forces. You engage in battle against the armies of the Axis, but refused to fight under british command. Provisionally this was resolved 13. January, when it was established the Command post of the AFHQ in Constantine (AFHQ Command Post, Constantine), headed by Eisenhower, that so through this quazi headquarters of the army group directly drove the american, british and French units. Despite Eisenhower frequent presence in Constantine it was clear that it wasn't sustainable long-term solution. In the second half of January, the Casablanca conference was held, which, inter alia, should address the question of the reorganization of the command structure so as to byal coordination of ground, air and naval units in North Africa with those in the Middle east. Indeed, the british 8. the army approaching from the south to Tunisia, while the british 1. the army operated in the northern section. It was therefore 18. February started for the establishment of 18. the group armies, which are subject to AFHQ and took over the management of both of these british armies. The commander of group of armies and at the same time deputy commander of AFHQ, he was appointed general Alexander, the british commander in the Middle east. Headquarters 18. army group largely assumed the operational matters of AFHQ. Planned and managed operations in Tunisia and to coordinate with the air force and navy. Checkup also on the proper supply of the two subordinate armies. It was actually on the allied headquarters, however, was composed mainly from the British and followed british regulations for the activities of the staffs. At the same time with the establishment of the army group was cancelled command post AFHQ in Constantine. In the air force was solved with the fragmentation of command structures by general Spaatz was 5. December 1942 temporary deputy commander of AFHQ for the air force (Acting Deputy Commander in Chief for Air, Allied Force). Available had the headquarters, which was established 5. January and after a time was renamed to the Severozápadoafrické headquarters air force (Northwest African Air Forces, abbreviated as NAAC). Subordinate to him were the american 12. air force and Eastern air command of the RAF. To them were according to the needs of the added French units. When the units Headquarters air force Western desert (Western Desert Air Force, abbreviated WDAF) arrived together with the british 8th. army in Tunisia, it was necessary to start to coordinate their activities with the units of the NAAC. For this purpose, was established the Mediterranean air command (Mediterranean Air Command, abbreviated as MAC). The crew resided in the AFHQ and to the head of the headquarters of the was appointed chief air marshal Tedder. Under MAC fell how the british middle east command (Middle East Command) and Air headquarters Malta (Air Headquarters Malta, abbreviated as AHQ Malta), as mentioned Spaatzovo the NAAC. Its scope, therefore, to include territory outside of NATO. In matters relating to those areas not subject to Tedder to Eisenhower. To a closer coordination of both maritime forces. 20. February was Cunninghamova function was renamed from the commander of the naval expeditionary force (Commander in Chief, Naval Expeditionary Forces) commander in the Mediterranean (Commander in Chief, Mediterranean). Responsible was now for all naval operations in oblsti scope of NATO.

Operation Husky
After north Africa it was the turn of the invasion of Sicily. This should take place in July in warmer months. 23. January 1943 he received the Eisenhower directive CCS, which it determined as the commander in chief. His deputy was appointed general Alexander. Commander of the air force became the air marshal Tedder and the navy's admiral Cunningham. Eisenhower was given the task to assemble, in cooperation with the Alexander special administrative and operating staff, who had surgery Husky plan and prepare. The first meeting of the headquarters took place 10. February 1943, in room 141 at the hotel St. The George Hotel in Algiers. From this also was derived the name of this group - crew Group 141 (Headquarters, Force 141). At this time it wasn't about a separate formation, but as part of the G3, AFHQ. However, its members were freed from the tasks related to the operations in Tunisia. Formation maintained a close and lively contact with the joint planning staff AFHQ. The experience gained during the establishment and activities of AFHQ and 18. the group of armies to allow for the rapid procedure of planning activities. In march, he was general Patton appointed commander of the Clusters 343 (Force 343), which was the american task force, and general Montgomery, commander of the Grouping 545 (Force 545), which was the british task force. 15. may was a few days after the surrender of German forces in north Africa was disbanded 18. a group of armies. Most of the staff was transferred to the Clusters 141. On the same day just Group 141 has transformed itself - - in a separate operational headquarters. In June, the headquarters moved to tunisia's La Marsy. At the beginning of July, then the Tactical headquarters Group 141 moved to Malta. From there, Eisenhower, Alexander, and Cunningham followed the progress of the invasion. On the contrary, Tedder remained at his headquarters in Tunis. In the day of the invasion of Sicily was a formation 141 renamed to 15. group armies (the15th Army Group), in which the head stood the general of Alexander. Clusters 343 at the same time was renamed to Even. armored corps, reinforced (I Armored Corps, Reinforced), respectively, at 7. army (Seventh Army) led by general Patton. Grouping 545 is changed to 8. army (Eight Army), led by general Montgomery..
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